Response of tree diversity to mean annual precipitation for native species in relatively uninvaded plots (A) and both native and alien species in all plots, including those highly invaded plots (B), across three main Hawaiian Islands. Native species diversity includes 79 native species and is estimated from 282 plots. Native and alien species diversity estimation includes 142 species, 63 of which are alien, collected from 375 plots. Diversity metrics (a and b) are calculated based on Hill number q = 0 (i.e., species richness). Tree species turnover across the precipitation gradient in three Hawaiian Islands (c and d). Relationship between (C) beta diversity of native tree species in relatively uninvaded plots and mean annual precipitation difference between plot pairs and beta diversity of both native and alien tree species (D) (i.e., including highly invaded plots) and mean annual precipitation difference between plot pairs. Species turnover (using BetaC sensu Engel et al. (2021)) represents levels of species specialisation across dry to wet ecosystems.